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Brief
History of Islamic Coinage
When the armies of Islam burst out of Arabia they faced two dominant yet
fatigued empires at their borders. These, the Byzantine and the Sasanian Empires, had once
dominated the area stretching from the shores of Spain in the west to the shores of the
Oxus in the east. But in the mid 650s, they had been locked in a struggle that reduced
their armies to a shell of what they once were.
The Arabs had never posed a credible threat to these empires. Divided as they were into
competing tribes, they were never perceived as a serious problem to the structured armies
of either empire. Moreover both Empire had setup buffer states to protect them from the
marauding raids of these tribes. To say that both the Byzantine and the Sasanian armies
were caught unaware by the Muslim armies is an understatement. In short order the
Byzantines lost Bilad al-Sham
and their land link to their North Africa domains. These in turn were also lost with very
little resistance. On the Sasanian side the scene was even more pronounced. In less than a
decade the great empire of the east that had withstood the Roman and Byzantine advances
collapsed and disappeared.
Why the Muslim advance was so fruitful is a matter for debate. Aside from the undoubted
strength that the Arab armies drew from their religious unity, they faced a population
that had been impoverished by years of war and heavy taxation. The Muslim bid for peaceful
surrender of the towns through the Pact of 'Umar was in many
ways a welcome change for the populace. They could keep their religious beliefs and
maintain their livelihoods, as long as they paid a set tax to the Muslim Umma. For the
population of the region who were of the Jewish faith or who practiced a different form of
Christianity than the Byzantine Church, such terms were welcome indeed. As such, the
Byzantine and Sasanian armies were caught in a struggle with an unexpected enemy who was
at some level welcome to the peoples of the realms.
With the Muslim success on the battle fields came the need to administer the conquered
domains. The Arabs did not as yet have a system as sophisticated as that of the two
vanquished empires. As such, they chose to maintain the existing administrative systems.
This continuity was not unprecedented. Many conquerors before and after the Arabs had
chosen to do the same. The Arabs, though, faced a unique situation in that they had
simultaneously conquered two empires and thus had to maintain two parallel administrative
systems one in the east and another in the west. These systems differed in their
languages, monetary systems, controls and culture. That the Muslims maintained these
systems in parallel for over half a century until the reforms of the Caliph 'Abd al-Malik
is on the one hand remarkable, but on the other hand it couldn't but contribute to the
future conflicts that would engulf the fledgling empire for many years to come.
The Muslims then, first used the existing monetary systems of their Sasanian and the
Byzantine predecessors. The earliest coinages and their dating are still a subject of hot
debates. Some argue that the Muslims didn't strike coins in the former Byzantine domains
until the reign of 'Abd al-Malik - almost half a century after they conquered the land.
Others argue that the Muslims started striking coinage in the area almost immediately as
they did in the former Sasanian realms. Most agree now that the truth must lie somewhere
in between these two views, with a consensus that the coinage of the era is very complex
and needs much more research. Be that as it may, at some point both in the east and in the
west, trappings of the Muslim empire started making their presence on the coins that
circulated in their realms. At first these changes were tentative - A word here, a Hijra
date there. These finally culminated in the reform of 'Abd al-Malik who overhauled the
entire administrative system uniting it in Arabic and changing the coinage drastically to
what we now recognize as Islamic coins.
The reformed coinage was mainly epigraphic and religious in its message. It proclaimed the
oneness of Allah and the status of Muhammad (PBUH) his last Messenger. This reform of 'Abd
al-Malik was to endure in one shape or another throughout the Muslim empire and its many
changes. Only in brief instances were we to see a strong departure from the principle
epigraphic composition of these coins in the form of pictorial representations and
imitations of other coinages.
For the most part though, the evolution of post reform Islamic coinage was deceptively
more subtle, and more significant as well. At some point the right to mint coinage became
a significant sign of independence. Having the ruler's name proclaimed in the Friday
prayers "al-Khutba" and the right to mint "al-Sikka" became the two
important rites to establishing legitimacy of sovereignty. It followed that the ruler's
name and titles as well as that of his overlord, heir, ascendant or even governors and
sometimes mint masters became important elements of the coinage. The trend was a slow move
away from religious proclamations towards longer honorific legends of the sultans and
kings. The coins thus became a way for rulers to announce their accession, conquest or
promotion, and for rebels to test the resolve of the sovereign.
Some debate that the above function of coinage is over stated and that the operations of
the mints were more of a local issue and steps removed from the direct control of the
Caliphs, Kings and Sultans. I would argue that although the daily operations of the mints
were looked over by minor officials, the mint and its products were not without
significance to the rulers. In al-Andalus the mint was actually moved to the palace
grounds of al-Zahra, while in the east the subtle changes that took place in 'Abbasid
coinage with the naming and renaming of heirs and generals on coins cannot have been done
if it were not perceived that the coinage was an important and useful means of
disseminating information and propaganda and conferring authority on those named on them.
Another period that clearly demonstrates the conscious and persistent use of coinage for
political reasons is during the conflicts between the Ayyubids on the one hand and the
Zangids and Urtukids on the other. One can trace a historically accurate picture of the
domination, liberation and re-domination of the minor Zangid and Urtukid realms by the
Ayyubids through the naming and omission of the Ayyubid overlords on the coinage of the
area.
Most Islamic coins state the city of minting and the date of issue in Hijri Era. Exception
are few, include the early Arab-Sasanian coinage some of which used Yazdigrid III and post
Yazdigrid III dating; some IlKhanid coins which used the experimental IlKhanid calendar;
and Ottoman coinage where a frozen accession dates instead of strike dates were used.
There are, however, many coins that have either the date, mint or both omitted from their
legends. Examples of these would be the North African and Andalusian coins following the
breakdown of the Umayyad empire there.
Minting practices were not uniform across distance or time in the Empire either. The
coinage ranged from the exquisite to the ugly. Moreover, the three metals that made up the
Islamic currency were not always used simultaneously. There are many instances were either
copper or silver are missing from the currency of a time or place. In such instances the
other metals seem to have compensated for this lack. There are also repeated instances of
debasement of both the gold and the silver coinage. These are all subjects for research
that is beyond the scope of this introduction.
Purpose of the collection:
The collection being built here,
as well as the Medieval
collection on our other site, tell the story of the Mediterranean
history during the era from The birth of Islam to the fall of
Granada and Constantinople. This period saw three
points of conflict and contact between east and west: The Iberian peninsula
in the west, Sicily and North Africa in the central region, and
the Levant and Anatolia in the east. In all three areas, great culture and
progress developed hand in hand with epic struggles. The best of
man's tolerant understanding and growth and the worst of man's
bigotry, hate and destruction mark this era. As we try to immerse
the
visitor in the times, we hope that you will reflect on the deeds
done and the values learned. We also hope that you will enjoy the
exhibition and that it adds to your knowledge. For the
numismatist, the collection should present a broad spectrum of
Medieval coinage and the database should facilitate research and
detailed viewing.
There were many dynasties that ruled the Islamic
Empires. To represent all of them in our collection is
practically impossible. We have endeavored
to include those dynasties that have made a major contribution to the
history of the Mediterranean and Islamic world. We hope that you enjoy our
effort.
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